He does not sleep well at night and feels that breathing while in bed seems to be a bit harder than when sitting or standing. Use of added pillows seems to help. He has a history of heart disease in the family and he has previously been diagnosed with mild atrial fibrillation, which is only being monitored.
Upon examination, you find BP 170/110, pulse rate 70-75, normal temperature and mild pitting edema at the ankles bilaterally. Chest exam reveals light crackles (rales) upon respiration and no abnormal heart sounds. There is no dullness upon listening to the heart. Rectal exam reveals normal sized prostate and no bleeding/blood in the stool. Abdominal exam reveals only mildly enlarged liver, normal spleen and no areas of tenderness. The jugular vein appears distended when in a reclined position to 30 degrees, but not when upright. Central venous pressure measured by JVD is 9cm H2O.
1. Considering the Starling forces (not cardiac Frank-Starling law) affecting fluid movement in a capillary, describe two ways to promote an increase in net fluid movement into the interstitium (i.e. increase/decrease in a given force that is part of calculating net fluid movement). (2pts) (MO 2,3; i.e. Relates to Module Objectives 2