CHAPTER<\/p>\n
11<\/p>\n
STRATIFICATION BY
GENDER AND SEXUALITY<\/p>\n
CHAPTER OUTLINE <\/p>\n
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER<\/p>\n
Gender Roles in the United States<\/p>\n
Cross-Cultural Perspective<\/p>\n
LABELING AND HUMAN SEXUALITY<\/p>\n
Gender and Human Sexuality<\/p>\n
Labeling and Identity<\/p>\n
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER<\/p>\n
Functionalist Perspective<\/p>\n
Conflict Perspective<\/p>\n
Feminist Perspective<\/p>\n
Intersections with Race, Class, and Other Social Factors<\/p>\n
Interactionist Perspective<\/p>\n
WOMEN: THE OPPRESSED MAJORITY<\/p>\n
Sexism and Sex Discrimination<\/p>\n
The Status of Women Worldwide<\/p>\n
THE WORKFORCE OF THE UNITED STATES<\/p>\n
Labor Force Participation<\/p>\n
Compensation<\/p>\n
Social Consequences of Women’s Employment<\/p>\n
EMERGENCE OF A COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS<\/p>\n
SOCIAL POLICY AND GENDER STRATIFICATION: THE BATTLE OVER ABORTION FROM A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE<\/p>\n
Boxes<\/p>\n
Sociology in the Global Community:
Women in Combat Worldwide<\/p>\n
Sociology in the Global Community: No Gender, Please: It\u2019s Preschool!<\/p>\n
Sociology in the Global Community: The Head Scarf and the Veil: Complex Symbols<\/p>\n
Research Today: Give Me a Male Boss, Please<\/p>\n
LEARNING OBJECTIVES<\/p>\n
WHAT\u2019S NEW IN CHAPTER 11<\/p>\n
Explain the meaning of the phrase the social construction of gender.<\/p>\n
Describe women\u2019s and men\u2019s gender roles and the process of gender-role socialization in the United States.<\/p>\n
Analyze the functionalist, conflict, feminist, and interactionist explanations of gender stratification.<\/p>\n
Describe the effects of sex discrimination.<\/p>\n
Summarize the status of women in the U.S. and worldwide.<\/p>\n
Compare and contrast the labor force participation and compensation of U.S. men and women in various occupations.<\/p>\n
Explain second shift in terms of women\u2019s employment.<\/p>\n
Summarize the concept of collective consciousness within the context of the development of feminism in the U.S.<\/p>\n
Analyze the battle over abortion through a sociological lens.<\/p>\n
Think About It questions about conventional gender behavior, social implications of the matrix of domination, and women\u2019s labor force participation<\/p>\n
Key term treatment for gender identity and sexual identity<\/p>\n
Discussion of gender identity as a spectrum<\/p>\n
Main section, \u201cLabeling and Human Sexuality,\u201d with Thinking Critically question<\/p>\n
Figure, \u201cWomen’s Labor Force Participation Rates, Selected Countries\u201d<\/p>\n
Sociology in the Global Community box, \u201cNo Gender, Please: It\u2019s Preschool\u201d<\/p>\n
Updated table, \u201cU.S. Women in Selected Occupations\u201d<\/p>\n
Updated figure, \u201cMapping Life Worldwide: The Global Divide on Abortion\u201d<\/p>\n
CHAPTER SUMMARY<\/p>\n
Gender roles are defined as expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. Social behavior is socially constructed so that male-female differences are created and then reinforced by social institutions. Gender-role socialization in the United States has followed a traditional pattern in that boys are taught to be active, aggressive, tough, daring and dominant, whereas girls are taught to be soft, emotional, sweet, and submissive. One important element in these traditional views is homophobia, fear of and prejudice against homosexuality. Gender-role socialization occurs through the influences of parents, older siblings, the mass media, religious and educational institutions, and other adults. Studies around the world have shown, however, that gender roles can vary greatly from one physical environment, economy, and political system to the next.<\/p>\n
Gender identity refers to how people see themselves: as male or female or something else. Most people, but not all, develop a gender identity that conforms to their biological sex at birth. Sexual identity is the awareness of being romantically or sexually attracted to a defined group of people. Labeling theorists have studied how labels have been used to sanction certain sexual behaviors and identities as \u201cdeviant.\u201d The process has varied significantly over time and in different cultures. In the United States and many other countries, people have been increasingly accepting of the existence of multiple sexual identities, as well as a gender spectrum no longer dominated by two fixed categories.<\/p>\n
Sociologists have turned to the major sociological perspectives to understand stratification by gender. Functionalists maintain that gender differentiation has contributed to social stability. Some argue that in order to function most efficiently, the family requires adults who specialize in particular roles, and that the division of tasks between spouses is functional for the family unit. Parsons and Bales contended that women\u2019s role is expressiveness, concern for the maintenance of harmony and internal emotional affairs of the family, while men\u2019s is instrumentality, an emphasis on tasks, distant goals, and the external relationship between one\u2019s family and other institutions. This perspective does not convincingly explain why men should be assigned categorically to the instrumental role and women to the expressive role. Conflict theorists see gender differences as a reflection of the subjugation of one group (women) by another group (men). Men\u2019s instrumental skills are more highly rewarded than women\u2019s expressive skills; men\u2019s work is uniformly valued, while women\u2019s is devalued. The feminist perspective argues that the very discussion of women and society has been distorted by the exclusion of women from academic thought. Contemporary feminists have also drawn attention to the intersections of gender with race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, which can further limit women\u2019s status; Patricia Hill Collins refers to this as the matrix of domination. Interactionists examine gender stratification with micro-level analysis. Gender is socially constructed in everyday interactions. They suggest that cross-sex conversations and male-dominated behaviors are one more battleground in the struggle for sexual equality.<\/p>\n
Women are viewed as the oppressed majority when looking at the political structure of the United States, in that women are noticeably underrepresented. Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior to the other. Men control all the major institutions in our society. Institutional discrimination is defined as the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society. The general pattern of male dominance is found everywhere, with women in developing nations facing the most severe challenges.<\/p>\n
A majority of women in the U.S. are now members of the paid labor force, but they find their options in the job market restricted in important ways. The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment. Women from all groups (and men from minority groups) sometimes encounter attitudinal or organizational bias that prevents them from reaching their full potential. This is especially the case in White male-dominated occupations. The term glass elevator refers to the advantages men experience in occupations dominated by women. There is a substantial gender gap in the median earnings of full-time workers. The phrase second shift refers to the double burden\u2014work outside the home, followed by childcare and housework\u2014that many women face. The burden of additional (unpaid) work at home is felt especially by mothers of young children.<\/p>\n
Feminism is the belief in social, economic, and political equality for women. The first wave of feminists worked for voting and other rights for women, and they won many victories, including the passage and ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The second wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s with the realization that suffrage had not led to social or economic equality. Women today do not necessarily call themselves feminists, but there is a growing acceptance of women in nontraditional roles.<\/p>\n
LECTURE OUTLINE<\/p>\n
Introduction<\/p>\n
\u2022 Excerpt from Lipstick Jihad: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America and American in Iran by Azadeh Moaveni<\/p>\n
I. Social Construction of Gender<\/p>\n
\u2022 Gender roles are expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Gender roles are socially constructed so that male\u2013female differences are either created or exaggerated. Example: In a heterosexual couple, the man should be taller than the woman.<\/p>\n
A. Gender Roles in the United States<\/p>\n
1. Gender-Role Socialization<\/p>\n
\u2022 Boys must be masculine and girls must be feminine.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Homophobia contributes significantly to rigid gender-role socialization. Example: Deviation from traditional expectations leads to the presumption of being gay.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Parents play a critical role in guiding children into gender roles.<\/p>\n
\u2022 There are often clear boundaries to conventional gender behavior. See Table 11-1.<\/p>\n
2. Women\u2019s Gender Roles<\/p>\n
\u2022 Girls identify in part with families, neighbors, and the media for their development of a feminine self-image.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Women are often portrayed in television and books as helpless, passive, and incompetent.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Females tend to be portrayed mostly in traditional roles, such as mother, grandmother, or volunteer.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Traditional gender roles have restricted females more severely than males.<\/p>\n
3. Men\u2019s Gender Roles<\/p>\n
\u2022 Men\u2019s gender roles are socially constructed, much like those of women.<\/p>\n
\u2022 The male gender role includes proving one\u2019s masculinity at work and in sports, and initiating and controlling sexual relations.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Men pursuing nontraditional jobs often encounter negative responses from others. Examples: male nurses, preschool teachers<\/p>\n
\u2022 Many men find that traditional masculinity does not serve them well in the service-oriented job market.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Multiple masculinities refers to how, although society reinforces the dominant male role, most men do play other roles such as nurturer.<\/p>\n
B. Cross-Cultural Perspective<\/p>\n
\u2022 Margaret Mead pointed to the importance of cultural and environmental conditioning\u2014rather than biology\u2014in defining the social roles of males and females. <\/p>\n
\u2022 Every society has women and men who resist and successfully oppose stereotypes. Maintenance of traditional gender roles requires constant social controls that are not always effective.<\/p>\n
\u2022 UN intervention has helped Afghanis begin to recognize that violence against women is a social problem.<\/p>\n
II. Labeling and Human Sexuality<\/p>\n
A. Gender and Human Sexuality<\/p>\n
\u2022 Gender identity and sexual identity are related but different.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Gender identity refers to how people see themselves: as male or female or something else.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Most people, but not all, develop a gender identity that conforms to their biological sex at birth.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Sexual identity is the self-awareness of being romantically or sexually attracted to a defined group of people.<\/p>\n
B. Labeling and Identity<\/p>\n
\u2022 The use of labels to sanction certain sexual behaviors and identities as \u201cdeviant\u201d has varied significantly over time and in different cultures. <\/p>\n
\u2022 Until 1973, the American Psychiatric Association considered homosexuality a \u201csociopathic personality disorder.\u201d<\/p>\n
\u2022 Because the social stigma lingers, many prefer terms such as gay and lesbian, or even queer. Others note the categories of homosexual and heterosexual ignore other sexual identities such as bisexual.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Today in the United States and many other countries, people have been increasingly accepting of the existence of multiple sexual identities, as well as a gender spectrum no longer dominated by two fixed categories.<\/p>\n
\u2022 While many people see themselves as either male or female, others may identify as transgendered, transsexual, or transvestite. The traditional Native American concept of the two spirit is a personality that blends the masculine and the feminine.<\/p>\n
III. Sociological Perspectives on Gender<\/p>\n
A. Functionalist Perspective<\/p>\n
\u2022 Gender differentiation contributes to overall social stability. Family requires specialized roles.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Parsons and Bales contended women take the expressive role and men the instrumental.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Instrumentality refers to an emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one\u2019s family and other social institutions.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Expressiveness denotes concern for maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family. Example: Women become anchored in the family as wives, mothers, and household managers.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Women\u2019s interest in expressive goals frees men for instrumental tasks, and vice versa.<\/p>\n
B. Conflict Perspective<\/p>\n
\u2022 The relationship between men and women has traditionally been one of unequal power.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Gender differences reflect the subjugation of one group (women) by another group (men). Example: Marx\u2019s bourgeoisie and proletariat<\/p>\n
\u2022 Men\u2019s work is uniformly valued, while women\u2019s work is devalued.<\/p>\n
C. Feminist Perspective<\/p>\n
\u2022 Much of the conflict approach to gender stratification draws on feminist theory.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Women\u2019s subjugation is part of the overall exploitation and injustice inherent in capitalist societies.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Radical feminists view the oppression of women as inevitable in all male-dominated societies.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Women have been excluded from academic thought. Example: Jane Addams and Ida Wells-Barnett<\/p>\n
D. Intersections with Race, Class, and Other Social Factors<\/p>\n
\u2022 Contemporary feminists also recognize the effect of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on differential treatment of women.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Patricia Hill Collins calls the convergence of these social forces that contributes to the subordinate status of these low-status women the matrix of domination.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Low-status minority women are oppressed much more by their race and ethnicity than by their gender.<\/p>\n
\u2022 In discussion of gender roles among African Americans, some contend feminism simply divides the Black community, while others argue little is to be gained by accepting the gender-role divisions of the dominant society.<\/p>\n
\u2022 At the time of Europeans settlers\u2019 arrival, some southern Native American tribes were matriarchal, an orientation that European missionaries set out to transform.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Latinas are usually considered part of either the Hispanic or feminist movements, their distinctive experience ignored.<\/p>\n
E. Interactionist Perspective<\/p>\n
\u2022 Interactionists focus on the micro level of everyday behavior, whereas functionalists and conflict theorists focus more on the macro level.<\/p>\n
\u2022 People can both conform to and challenge gender roles in day-to-day interactions.<\/p>\n
IV. Women: The Oppressed Majority<\/p>\n
\u2022 Women remain noticeably underrepresented in political structures. Example: Entering the 2016 election season, only 6 of the nation\u2019s 50 states had a female governor. <\/p>\n
\u2022 Women have, however, made slow but steady progress in certain political arenas. Example: As of 2015, three women sat on the U.S. Supreme Court.<\/p>\n
A. Sexism and Sex Discrimination<\/p>\n
\u2022 Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior to the other.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Institutional discrimination contributes to sexism. All major institutions are controlled by men and are biased in their treatment of women. Examples: Government, armed forces, large corporations, the media, universities<\/p>\n
B. The Status of Women Worldwide<\/p>\n
\u2022 According to a detailed overview of the status of the world\u2019s women, issued by the World Bank in 2015, women in many parts of the world still lag far behind men in their earnings and in their ability to speak out politically.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Regardless of culture, women everywhere suffer from second-class status.<\/p>\n
\u2022 The feminization of poverty is a global phenomenon.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Despite the challenges, women are mobilizing, individually and collectively.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Much of the exploited labor in developing nations (especially in the nonindustrial sector) is performed by women.<\/p>\n
\u2022 In industrialized countries, women\u2019s unequal status can be seen in the division of housework, as well as in the jobs they hold and the pay they earn.<\/p>\n
V. The Workforce of the United States<\/p>\n
A. Labor Force Participation<\/p>\n
\u2022 In 2015, women accounted for approximately 47 percent of the paid labor force of the United States. <\/p>\n
\u2022 Women are underrepresented in occupations historically defined as \u201cmen\u2019s jobs.\u201d Examples: Civil engineers, computer systems analysts<\/p>\n
\u2022 The glass ceiling prevents women from reaching their full potential.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Worldwide, women hold less than 1 percent of corporate managerial positions.<\/p>\n
B. Compensation<\/p>\n
\u2022 When men and women hold the same jobs, men usually make more money.<\/p>\n
\u2022 The gender gap persists even after controlling for age, education, and work experience.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Legally, sex discrimination in wage payments is difficult to prove.<\/p>\n
\u2022 While women are at a disadvantage in male-dominated occupations, men are often at an advantage in female occupations, a phenomenon known as the glass escalator.<\/p>\n
C. Social Consequences of Women\u2019s Employment<\/p>\n
\u2022 Women juggling work and family puts pressure on child care facilities, public financing of day care, and the food industry; and it raises questions about male wage earners\u2019 responsibility in the household.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Sociologist Arlie Hochschild has described the double burden of housework and childcare following work outside the home as the \u201csecond shift.\u201d<\/p>\n
\u2022 Women spend 15 fewer hours per week in leisure activities compared to men; and in a year, they work an extra month of 24-hour days because of the second shift.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Feminists have advocated greater government and corporate support for childcare, family leave policies, and other reforms.<\/p>\n
VI. Emergence of a Collective Consciousness<\/p>\n
\u2022 Feminism is an ideology that favors equal rights for women.<\/p>\n
\u2022 The first wave of feminists worked for voting and other rights for women, and won many victories, including the passage and ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution.<\/p>\n
\u2022 The second wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s with the realization that suffrage had not led to social or economic equality. <\/p>\n
\u2022 By the 1980s the movement\u2019s influence was beginning to wane; many women and men believe the word feminist has negative implications.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Women today do not necessarily call themselves feminists, but there is a growing acceptance of women in nontraditional roles.<\/p>\n
VII. (Box) Social Policy and Gender Stratification: <\/p>\n
The Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective<\/p>\n
A. Looking at the Issue<\/p>\n
\u2022 The debate over legalized abortion stirs as much intense conflict, or more, than any other issue.<\/p>\n
\u2022 In Roe v. Wade, a 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision, the ruling was based on a woman\u2019s right to privacy. The debate that has followed this ruling revolves around prohibiting abortion altogether, or at the very least, limiting it.<\/p>\n
\u2022 In the U.S., people seem to support a woman\u2019s right to a legal abortion, but with reservations. According to a 2015 national survey, 42 percent say that abortion should be legal in any case or under most circumstances; 36 percent, legal only under certain circumstances; and 19 percent, illegal in all cases. There is a relatively small gender difference in opinion: 54 percent of women and 46 percent of men identify themselves as \u201cpro-choice.\u201d<\/p>\n
B. Applying Sociology<\/p>\n
\u2022 Gender and social class are defining issues surrounding abortion.<\/p>\n
\u2022 The conflict reflects broader differences over women\u2019s position in society. Feminists largely defend abortion rights; antiabortion activists tend to believe that women are best suited to child rearing, and are troubled by women\u2019s growing participation in work outside the home.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Access to abortion providers is a problem for the poor.<\/p>\n
\u2022 State and local policies that hamper the doctors and clinics that provide abortions have increased.<\/p>\n
C. Initiating Policy<\/p>\n
\u2022 A Supreme Court majority of 5\u20134 supported abortion rights in 1973. Pro-life activists continue to hope for Roe v. Wade to be overruled, but focus in the interim on weakening the decision.<\/p>\n
\u2022 About two-thirds of countries worldwide permit abortion when the woman is in danger; and half when the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest. About one-third of countries permit abortion for economic or social reasons or on request. The legal grounds for abortion are most restrictive in the least developed countries.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Antiabortion members of the U.S. Congress have often blocked foreign aid to countries that might use the funds to encourage abortion.<\/p>\n
\u2022 Forty percent of abortions worldwide are performed illegally, in many cases because the woman lives in a country where abortion is illegal or severely restricted.<\/p>\n
KEY TERMS<\/p>\n
Brass ceiling An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a woman in the military because of her official (not necessarily actual) exclusion from combat.<\/p>\n
Expressiveness Concern for the maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family.<\/p>\n
Feminism An ideology that favors equal rights for women.<\/p>\n
Gender identity How people see themselves, as male or female, or something else.<\/p>\n
Gender role Expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females.<\/p>\n
Glass ceiling An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individual’s gender, race, or ethnicity.<\/p>\n
Glass escalator The advantage men experience in occupations dominated by women.<\/p>\n
Homophobia Fear of and prejudice against homosexuality.<\/p>\n
Institutional discrimination The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society.<\/p>\n
Instrumentality An emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one’s family and other social institutions.<\/p>\n
Matrix of domination The cumulative impact of oppression because of race and ethnicity, gender, and social class, as well as religion, sexual orientation, disability, age, and citizenship status.<\/p>\n
Multiple masculinities A variety of male gender roles, including nurturing-caring and effeminate-gay roles, that men may play along with their more pervasive traditional role of dominating women.<\/p>\n
Second shift The double burden\u2014work outside the home followed by child care and housework\u2014that many women face and few men share equitably.<\/p>\n
Sexism The ideology that one sex is superior to the other.<\/p>\n
Sexual identity The self-awareness of being romantically or sexually attracted to a defined group of people. Also referred to as sexual orientation.<\/p>\n
ESSAY QUESTIONS<\/p>\n
What is meant by the \u201csocial construction of gender\u201d?<\/p>\n
Why is homophobia relevant to traditional gender-role socialization in the United States?<\/p>\n
How do the media contribute to gender-role socialization?<\/p>\n
Summarize the findings of anthropologists regarding the constructions of gender across diverse cultures.<\/p>\n
What is meant by the terms gender identity and sexual identity, and how are they related?<\/p>\n
How does labeling theory and the sanctioning of certain behaviors as \u201cdeviant\u201d relate to sexual behaviors and identities?<\/p>\n
What is the functionalist view of stratification by gender?<\/p>\n
What distinctions are made by Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales in terms of the roles played by men and women in the United States?<\/p>\n
How do conflict theorists view stratification by gender?<\/p>\n
What is the feminist view of stratification by gender?<\/p>\n
Compare and contrast the feminist and conflict views of stratification by gender.<\/p>\n
What does the interactionist approach in sociology show concerning gender differences?<\/p>\n
Compare and contrast the functionalist, conflict, feminist, and interactionist perspectives of stratification by gender.<\/p>\n
Analyze the scarf and veil used by Middle Eastern women from the interactionist, functionalist, and conflict perspectives.<\/p>\n
How does institutional discrimination operate in the United States with respect to women?<\/p>\n
Discuss the prevalence of gender discrimination throughout the world.<\/p>\n
What conclusions can we make about women\u2019s equality worldwide?<\/p>\n
What forms can sexism take in the workplace?<\/p>\n
What is meant by the term glass ceiling? What is the glass escalator?<\/p>\n
What does research show about the division of labor between men and women in housework and childcare?<\/p>\n
How does the concept of the \u201csecond shift\u201d apply to the social construction of gender?<\/p>\n
What is the significance of Roe v. Wade to the abortion issue, and how are anti-abortion activists working to weaken the decision?<\/p>\n
How do sociologists view the abortion debate in the United States?<\/p>\n
Discuss the continuing battle between pro-choice and pro-life groups in the abortion controversy.<\/p>\n
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS<\/p>\n
Describe some changes in government policies and application of benefits that might help to alleviate the \u201csecond shift\u201d problem that keeps many women from enjoying as much leisure time as men.<\/p>\n
Describe why females in the United States are traditionally more receptive to giving up their maiden name for marriage than males would likely be.<\/p>\n
Why have some writers and media outlets proclaimed the \u201cdeath of feminism\u201d in recent decades? Describe how the evolution of feminism in the United States supported or contradicted this idea.<\/p>\n
Describe how corporations might exploit female workers to maximize their profits. Be sure to give some examples to support your answer.<\/p>\n
Describe what is meant by the \u201cglass escalator\u201d and describe some real-world examples of how it might affect a workplace.<\/p>\n
IM \u2013 11 | 3<\/p>\n
Copyright \u00a9 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.
No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.<\/p>\n
IM \u2013 11 | 1<\/p>\n
Copyright \u00a9 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.
No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.<\/p>\n
242<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
CHAPTER 11 STRATIFICATION BY GENDER AND SEXUALITY CHAPTER OUTLINE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER Gender Roles in the United States Cross-Cultural Perspective LABELING AND HUMAN SEXUALITY Gender and Human Sexuality Labeling and Identity SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER Functionalist Perspective Conflict Perspective Feminist Perspective Intersections with Race, Class, and Other Social Factors Interactionist Perspective WOMEN: THE OPPRESSED […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[10],"class_list":["post-80454","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-research-paper-writing","tag-writing"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/papersspot.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/80454","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/papersspot.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/papersspot.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/papersspot.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/papersspot.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=80454"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/papersspot.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/80454\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/papersspot.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=80454"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/papersspot.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=80454"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/papersspot.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=80454"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}