1 Engy Eskandar PCB 4723 10/31/2021 Dr. Boeheme How the Great White

Engy Eskandar

PCB 4723

10/31/2021

Dr. Boeheme

How the Great White Sharks Change Their behavior and Use Senses to Find Their Prey

The great white sharks are one of the most aggressive marine predators that use their senses to find prey. The sharks have six senses namely, sight, smell, hearing, touch, taste, and electroreceptors. The sense of smell is the most important for white sharks when looking for prey as they can smell them from a long distance (Egeberg et al. 2019). The white sharks use these senses to get predators within the marine environment. Researchers use various resources to identify the senses that are specific to a given type of shark to understand how sharks use their senses to survive in the marine environment. The white sharks adapt to their environment by adjusting their senses to find the prey suitable for them. The white sharks also use combined senses to get their prey easily depending on the situation. They have adapted to protect their senses when approaching their prey like pulling their eyes back before attacking (Collin 2018).

Becerril-García EE, Bernot-Simon D, Arellano-Martínez M, Galván-Magaña F, Santana- Morales O, Hoyos-Padilla EM. 2020. Evidence of interactions between white sharks and large squids in Guadalupe Island, Mexico. Scientific Reports. 10(1): 17158.

The article focuses on the interactions between the white sharks and large squids based on evidence on the sharks’ skins. The sharks’ movement is used as evidence of their search for prey such as bony fish which makes the sharks move to Guadalupe Island (Becerril-García et al. 2020). The white sharks use their defensive tactics against the large squids while looking for prey on the island where their prey is in large amounts (Becerril-García et al. 2020). The study used non-invasive techniques to observe the skin of the sharks and the marks left by the large squids (Becerril-García et al. 2020). The frequency of the scars shows that the white sharks move to the island often to find prey (Becerril-García et al. 2020). The sharks’ sense of touch helps in defending themselves from the large squids while in search of prey (Becerril-García et al. 2020). Besides, they use their sense of sight to see the large squids and fight them for the prey that is available in large amounts on the islands (Becerril-García et al. 2020). The data collected in the research is useful in providing conservation strategies for the white sharks.

Becerril-García EE, Hoyos-Padilla EM, Micarelli P, Galván-Magaña F, Sperone E. 2020. Behavioural responses of white sharks to specific baits during cage diving ecotourism. Scientific Reports. 10(1): 11152.

The study focuses on the use of various baits to attract the white sharks at Guadalupe Island in Mexico. The baits used included frozen baits, frozen baits with natural chum, fresh fish bait, and mackerel bags (Becerril-García et al. 2020). The data was analyzed based on sex, maturity, and the total sharks sighted (Becerril-García et al. 2020). The baits that attracted the highest number of sharks were used to develop patterns in the behaviors of the white sharks while looking for prey (Becerril-García et al. 2020). The information would be used for ecotourism purposes to create awareness of the factors that make the white sharks react violently. The results showed that when the fresh baits were used, the sense of smell and sight were the notable aspects used by the sharks in capturing their prey (Becerril-García et al. 2020). The results also showed a possibility of smell and appearance of frozen bait to be causing olfactory and visual attraction to the prey and this reduced the aggression shown by the white sharks (Becerril-García et al. 2020).

Chapuis L, Collin SP, Yopak KE, McCauley RD, Kempster RM, Ryan LA, Schmidt C, Kerr CC, Gennari E, Egeberg CA, Hart NS. 2019. The effect of underwater sounds on shark behaviour. Scientific Reports. 9(1):6924.

The research focused on using cameras to record the behaviors of sharks that were exposed to sounds underwater (Chapuis et al. 2019). Sound is an essential sensory stimulus for underwater creatures since it travels in several directions and therefore affects the movement of the white sharks (Chapuis et al. 2019). The white sharks moved away from the baited cameras when they produced artificial sounds while they were unbothered while natural sounds such as the orca calls were played (Chapuis et al. 2019). The results showed that the white sharks rely on the sounds produced by the prey to hunt them in the underwater environment (Chapuis et al. 2019). The white sharks had different reactions when the sounds were produced by the baited cameras as seen in the videos recorded. For example, they would pass nearby, touch or bump the rig, touch the bait and snout around it, and taste or bite the bait such as the fresh baits used on the cameras (Chapuis et al. 2019). This shows that the white sharks react to the visual and auditory senses.

Collin SP. 2018. Scene through the eyes of an apex predator: a comparative analysis of the shark visual system. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 101(5): 624-640.

The research focused on the visual and other senses of the white sharks as predators in the marine environment. The study aims at analyzing the major ocular components in the sharks and how they adapt to the underwater environment. It covers various shark species including the white sharks and how they have different image resolution and sensitivity, video processing abilities based on illumination (Collin 2018). The white sharks were identified to have traits such as large extraocular eye muscles and it moves them when it is fixating on its prey to align its body and to move correctly to get the targeted prey (Collin 2018). Light is important to the white sharks as they rely on it for foraging in the deep water in search of prey at night (Collin 2018). Besides, the research showed that the great white sharks use the sun-tracking predation style since the light provided helps them bait the targeted prey correctly by blocking the light with their bodies (Collin 2018).

Egeberg CA, Kempster RM, Hart NS, Ryan L, Chapuis L, Kerr CC, Schmidt C, Gennari E, Yopak KE, Collin SP. 2019. Not all electric shark deterrents are made equal: effects of a commercial electric anklet deterrent on white shark behaviour. PLOS ONE. 14(3): e0212851.

Shark bites have resulted in the use of various deterrents to protect individuals in water bodies from negative interactions with sharks. The devices used are tested to see their impacts on the white sharks and their success as deterrents. The data collected can be used to explain the behaviors of the sharks, and how they use their senses while interacting with people using these deterrents (Egeberg et al. 2019). In the research article, the study was based on using a stereo-camera system to study the behavioral interactions between the white sharks and the baited targets surrounded by commercially available electric anklet shark deterrent (Egeberg et al. 2019). Some of the sharks’ behaviors changed when they touched or saw the deterrents, but some sharks observed the deterrents and after several interactions, their behavior around the baits did not change (Egeberg et al. 2019). The results indicated that the presence of the deterrents did not reduce the number of sharks around the baits (Egeberg et al. 2019). The results show that while the repellant may be an effective way to reduce shark bites, their behavior regarding proximity and habituation influenced their approach to the bait (Egeberg et al. 2019).

Jorgensen SJ, Anderson S, Ferretti F, Tietz JR, Chapple T, Kanive P, Bradley RW, Moxley JH, Block BA. 2019. Killer whales redistribute white shark foraging pressure on seals. Scientific Reports. 9(1):6153.

The article based its research on a foraging site at Southeast Farallon Island (SEFI) where the interaction between the killer whales and the white sharks has changed their populations significantly (Jorgensen et al. 2019). As some of the most aggressive marine animals, the killer whale and the white sharks have highly overlapping niches and data has been collected to show how they displace each other in the search for prey (Jorgensen et al. 2019). The predators utilize their senses to find their prey, and they fight each other to take control over the prey areas available on the island (Jorgensen et al. 2019). The results have shown that the white sharks were sighted preying on various species, and their populations reduced with the increase of the killer whales (Jorgensen et al. 2019). Besides, the white sharks relied on their senses to avoid the killer whales in the area (Jorgensen et al. 2019). The movement of the white sharks was based on the proximity to the white whales where they used hearing and smell to move away from the areas with a high amount of elephant seals (Jorgensen et al. 2019).

Kempster RM, Egeberg CA, Hart NS, Ryan L, Chapuis L, Kerr CC, Schmidt C, Huveneers C, Gennari E, Yopak KE, Meeuwig J, Collin S. 2016. How close is too close? The effect of a non-lethal electric Shark deterrent on white shark behaviour. PLOS ONE.11(7): e0157717.

The article researched the deterrents from shark bites and the white sharks’ behavior around the static baits used to observe their behaviors (Kempster et al. 2016). In the study, it was observed that the static field was an effective deterrent as the sharks avoided proximity to the bait (Kempster et al. 2016). The cameras recorded that the Shark Shield used as the deterrent reduced bites as the sharks could feel the electric effects of the device nearby (Kempster et al. 2016). The results indicated as the shark’s ability to detect the existence of the electric deterrent from a distance could indicate that they have stimulus abilities (Kempster et al. 2016). Besides, the sharks could smell and see the prey from a distance as they swam close by, but the electric field reduced their motion and resulted in a change of direction (Kempster et al. 2016).

Marra NJ, Stanhope MJ, Jue NK, Wang M, Sun Q, Bitar PP, Richards VP, Komissarov A, Rayko M, Kliver S, Stanhope B, Winkler C, O’Brien S, Antunes A, Jorgensen S, Shivji M. 2019. White shark genome reveals ancient elasmobranch adaptations associated with wound healing and the maintenance of genome stability. PNAS. 116(10): 4446-4455.

The article aims at studying the genome features of the white sharks that have acted as survival benefits. It provides evidence of the history of positive selection and important genome stability-related genes and functional categories that have enabled the long-term survival of white sharks (Marra et al. 2019). The white sharks have an acute sense of smell that is higher than other species, and it has high wound-healing abilities that make it possible to survive (Marra et al. 2019). The olfactory receptor genes in the white sharks make it possible for them to smell the prey as well as potential predators from a distance (Marra et al. 2019). The white sharks also have one trace of amine-associated receptors that enhance the white sharks’ ability to sense available prey (Marra et al. 2019). The white sharks are also capable of detecting olfactory signals to expect danger or preys within their environment (Marra et al. 2019). Thus, the results indicate that white sharks have genetic advantages that enhance their survival abilities.

Shea BD, Benson CW, Silva CD, Donovan D, Romeiro J, Bond ME, Creel S, Gallagher AJ. 2020. Effects of exposure to large sharks on the abundance and behavior of mobile prey fishes along a temperate coastal gradient. PLOS ONE. 15(3): e0230308.

The article observes how marine species considered as prey to large species such as the white shark change their behavior as recorded by the baited remote underwater video stations (Shea et al. 2020). The goal of the study is to understand the ecological role of large sharks such as white sharks on coastal marine ecosystems. The white sharks are described as the largest predatory shark in the world, and they are geographically present in areas that have natural foraging to provide them with their food (Shea et al. 2020). The white sharks hunt seals and large pinnipeds on the marine environment among other prey. The hunting behaviors of the white sharks involve reliance on their senses to observe the prey and use sun-blocking to attack them (Shea et al. 2020). The results showed that the mobile prey fish did not have significant behavior changed despite the occupancy of the white sharks in the coastal region and this resulted in their consumption as the white sharks observe their behaviors and create patterns of attack (Shea et al. 2020). The white sharks hunt the fish prey on their habitats as they have the senses such as sight to observe their movement and follow them to the coastal beaches (Shea et al. 2020).

Tucker JP, Colefax AP, Santos IR, Kelaher BP, Pagendam DE, Butcher PA. 2021. White shark behaviour altered by stranded whale carcasses: insights from drones and implications for beach management. Ocean & Coastal Management. 200: 105477.

The study focuses on the consumption of whale carcasses by the white sharks and how this may affect their behaviors (Tucker et al. 2021). The article argues that the white sharks may have sensory capabilities of learning when whale carcasses are floating on the water over long distances (Tucker et al. 2021). The number of whales dying in water bodies has been rising with increased pollution and the carcasses tend to float on the water bodies (Tucker et al. 2021). The article identifies a gap in research where it remains unclear if the sharks can sense the floating carcasses and how consuming the whale carcasses affects the behavior of the white sharks (Tucker et al. 2021). The whale carcasses may leak fluids of decomposition into the ocean, and the white sharks’ ability to smell may result in their movement near the carcasses to eat them (Tucker et al. 2021). The data was collected by monitoring the sharks’ behavior around whale carcasses. The results show that the speeds of the white sharks increased when they sensed nearby food through smell or sight and traveled longer distances as indicated on the track sinuosity introduced during the research (Tucker et al. 2021).

Watanabe YY, Payne NL, Semmens JM, Fox A, Huveneers C. 2019. Swimming strategies and energetics of endothermic white sharks during foraging. Journal of Experimental Biology. 222(4).

The white sharks are identified in the research as some of the potentially most energy-demanding fishes in the oceans, and they have regional endothermy (Watanabe et al. 2019). The species have elevated core body temperatures that enhance their touch senses (Watanabe et al. 2019). The white sharks utilize various behavioral strategies to increase their encounters with their prey while managing the energetic costs of swimming (Watanabe et al. 2019). The article collected data on the depth and speed of the white sharks while swimming and how they utilize these when looking for preys (Watanabe et al. 2019). The white sharks were observed to use their scales to manage the water temperature while hunting for prey (Watanabe et al. 2019). They use their sense of touch to manage energy consumption when swimming to hunt for prey as it reduces wave drag (Watanabe et al. 2019). The results showed that the white sharks rely on lowering their speed while hunting for prey to conserve their energy and sensitivity analysis would indicate that they use their scales and swimming strategies to attack the prey without high energy costs (Watanabe et al. 2019).

References

Collin SP. 2018. Scene through the eyes of an apex predator: a comparative analysis of the shark visual system. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 101(5): 624-640.

Kempster RM, Egeberg CA, Hart NS, Ryan L, Chapuis L, Kerr CC, Schmidt C, Huveneers C, Gennari E, Yopak KE, Meeuwig J, Collin S. 2016. How close is too close? the effect of a non-lethal electric Shark deterrent on white shark behaviour. PLOS ONE. 11(7): e0157717.

Watanabe YY, Payne NL, Semmens JM, Fox A, Huveneers C. 2019. Swimming strategies and energetics of endothermic white sharks during foraging. Journal of Experimental Biology. 222(4).

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