The Species Paper
What formatting style should I use?
When writing the paper use the following formatting instructions: 1) use ONE inch margins on all sides of the page; 2) use one and half (1.5 inches) as line spacing; 3) Use font size 12 and a common font type such as Times, Times New Roman, Helvetica, Garamond, or Courier New. The paper should be a minimum of 800 words (excluding your sources) and a maximum of 1000.
Your topic
I want you to write about a specific species that you have chosen. I want you to research that species and write about how we came to know that species and what do we know about it. Some examples of topics to cover are where does the species reside, what is its diet, where is its place in the food chain, its evolutionary history etc.…
Your sources:
You will need a minimum of five different sources. They can range from book chapters, scholarly articles, or internet websites. However, you can only have a max of two sources from a website. Your sources should be a mix of different types of media.
How do you organize your paper?
You should have three sections: an introductory paragraph, the main body of your paper, and a concluding paragraph. The introductory paragraph should explain what topic you are discussing and outline your main ideas. The main body of the paper covers the topic as described in your introductory paragraph. Then try to come to some conclusion that connects your paper together. You need to present a full list of references at the end of your paper (in a separate page-see below to learn how to list your references). You also need to cite your sources in the text of your paper (see below to learn how cite your references in the text of your paper).
How to Cite Sources in Your Paper
Modified from a document prepared at Bates College
http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWcitations.html
NOTE: Although you should use these citation formats in this and other biology courses, specific formats vary considerably for individual scientific journals. If you are trying to publish a paper in a specific journal, you will be required to follow the format of that journal. Some journals, e.g., Science, use a number system to give the text reference. That system will not be presented here, but you should expect to encounter it in your reading of the literature.
Citing References in the Body (in the main body of your paper) of the Paper
Throughout the body of your paper, whenever you refer to outside sources of information, you must cite the sources from which you drew information. The simplest way to do this is to parenthetically give the author’s last name and the year of publication, e.g., (Clarke, 2001). When citing information from another’s publication, be sure to report the relevant aspects of the work clearly and succinctly, IN YOUR OWN WORDS to avoid plagiarism. Provide a reference to the work as soon as possible after giving the information.
There are exceptions among the various journals, but generally, in biological journals, the most frequent types of citations are shown in the following examples (in bold):
“It has been found that male mice react to estrogen treatment by a reduction in phase three of courtship behavior (Bugjuice, 1970). Click and Clack (1974) demonstrated that mice treated with synthetic estrogen analogs react similarly. The reduction in phase three courtship behavior may also be linked to nutritional status (Anon, 1996; Bruhahauser et al., 1973).”
Note the following:
Typically, only the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication are given, e.g., Bugjuice 1970. Your Literature Cited section will contain the complete reference, and the reader can look it up there.
Notice that the reference to the book has a page number (Gumwad 1952:209). This is to facilitate a reader’s finding the reference in a long publication such as a book (not done for journal articles). The paper by Bugjuice (1970) is short, and if readers want to find the referenced information, they would not have as much trouble.
For two author papers, give both authors’ last names (e.g., Click and Clack, 1974). Articles with more than two authors are cited by the first authors last name followed “et al.” (for et alii; this means “and others” in Latin) and then the year.
When a book, paper, or article has no identifiable author, cite it as Anon. Year, e.g., (Anon. 1996) (Anon. is the abbreviation for anonymous).
If you want reference a paper found in another article, do so as follows: (Driblick 1923, in Oobleck 1978).
A string of citations should be separated by semicolons, e.g., (Gumwad 1952:209; Bugjuice 1970; Bruhahauser et al 1973).
Finally, you should note the placement of the period AFTER the parenthetical citation – the citation, too, is part of a sentence,e.g., “…courtship behavior (Gumwad 1952:209; Bugjuice 1970).”
DO NOT DO THE FOLLOWING:
DO NOT USE FOOTNOTES: Footnoting, although commonly done in books and other literary writing, is only rarely done in the scientific literature. Cite references in the flow of the text as shown above.
DO NOT USE DIRECT QUOTES From Published Material: In 99.99% of the cases, the information you want from a research article is an objective result or interpretation. How the author stated this information, i.e., their prose, is of little importance compared to the results or interpretations themselves. Take the information and put it into your own words; avoid plagiarism.
Formats for Complete Citations Used in the Scientific Literature:
This information is provided ONLY to “expand your horizons” and not to complicate your life. The format for entries in the Literature Cited section of scientific journal differs for books and for journal papers because different kinds of information must be provided. The formats provided here are typical, but may vary in different publications depending on their particular needs and practices.
Some basic rules applicable to all formats indexed by author name(s):
All citation entries are listed in alphabetical order based on the first author’s last name;
If the same author(s) are cited for more than one paper having the same order of authors’ names, the papers should be listed in chronological sequence by year of publication.
Authors’ names MUST be listed in the citation in the same order as in the article.
If the same author(s) are cited for two or more papers published within the same year, place a small case letter after the year to denote the sequence in which you referred to them. For example:
Bugjuice, B. 1970a. Physiological effects of estrogen on mouse courtship behavior….J Physiol 40(2):140-145.
Bugjuice, B. 1970b. Physiological effects of estrogen analogs: Insincere courtship…. behavior in female mice. J Physiol 40(8):1240-1247.
If no author is listed, use the word Anonymous in place of the author name(s).
Anonymous. 1992. …..give rest of citation using appropriate format.
Journal Article: Single author
Bugjuice, B. 1970. Physiological effects of estrogen on mouse courtship behavior. J Physiol 40(2):140-145.
Bugjuice (1970) OR (Bugjuice 1970)
In the citation of Bugjuice’s paper, note the following:
abbreviation of her first name; no comma (if full name is given, then use a comma); if multiple authors, use commas between;
capitalization of the words in the title is just as though it were a sentence;
abbreviation of the journal name; usually the header on the article will list the appropriate abbreviation for the journal; no periods in abbreviated form of journal name;
“40” is the volume number “(2)” is the number of the issue; if no issue is given, the colon follows the volume number;
“140-145” is the inclusive page numbers of the article;
placement of periods is standard;
indentation of the second line (and all subsequent lines) in the citation. This applies to all citations.
Journal: Two authors
Timm, T. and B. Bugjuice. 1989. The role of whisker length in mouse nose-twitch courtship behavior. J Physiol 61(3):113-118.
Timm and Bugjuice (1989) OR (Timm and Bugjuice 1989)
Journal: Multiple authors
Bugjuice, B., Timm, T. and R. Cratchet. 1990. The role of estrogen in mouse courtship behavior changes as mice age. J Physiol 2(6): 1130-1142.
Bugjuice et al. (1990) OR Bugjuice and others (1990) OR (Bugjuice and others 1990)
Author(s) Unknown or Not Named
If the authorship of a paper or other document is not provided, cite the author using the word “Anonymous” in the place of the author’s name(s).
Anonymous. 1979. STD’s and You: A Survival Guide for College Students in the 20th Century. Publ.#12-1979, Waazah County Health Department, Popville, Maine. 6 p.
Anonymous (1979) OR (Anonymous 1979)
Book: single author
Gumwad, G. 1952. Behavior patterns of mice. 2nd ed. New York: Harper & Row. 347 p.
Gumwad (1952:224) OR (Gumwad 1952:224)
Book: multiple authors
Huth, J., Brogan, M., Dancik, B., Kommedahl, T., Nadziejka, D., Robinson, P., and W. Swanson.1994. Scientific format and style: The CBE manual for authors, editors, and publishers. 6th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 825 p.
Huth et al. (1994:625) OR Huth and others (1994:625) OR (Huth and others 1994:625)
Book: authors contributing a specific chapter
Kuret, J. and F. Murad. 1990. Adenohypophyseal hormones and related substances. In: Gilman A, Rall T, Nies A, Taylor P, editors. The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 8th ed. New York: Pergamon. p. 1334-60.
Kuret and Murad (1990:1334-60) OR (Kuret and Murad 1990:1334-60)
In the books citation, note the following:
abbreviation of authors first name (one or both initials ok);
capitalize title as if it was a sentence; the title is not underlined (contrary to literary format)
“2nd ed.” means second edition; if the book is a first edition; no entry is made, here, but if 2nd, 3rd, etc., then the notation is made;
give city of publication, and the name of the publisher;
year of publication follows authors’ names;
placement of periods is standard;
indentation of all lines after the first.
A note on the use of Active and Passive Voice
(Modified from: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/)
In a sentence using active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb. Active voice is used for most non-scientific writing. Using active voice for the majority of your sentences makes your meaning clear for readers, and keeps the sentences from becoming too complicated or wordy. Even in scientific writing, too much use of passive voice can cloud the meaning of your sentences. Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express action in active voice than in passive.
In a sentence using passive voice, the subject is acted upon; he or she receives the action expressed by the verb. The agent performing the action may appear in a “by the…” phrase or may be omitted.
Reasons to Generally Avoid Passive Voice
Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences. This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.
Recognizing Passive Voice: You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a “by the…” phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.
Helpful Hint: You can recognize passive voice because the verb phrase will include a form of be (was, am, are, been, is). Don’t assume that just because there is a form of ‘be’ that the sentence is passive, however. Sometimes a prepositional phrase like “by the” in the sentences above indicates that the action is performed on the subject, and that the sentence is passive.
Choosing Passive Voice: Writers in the sciences (this means you while writing your paper!) conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.
Active
Passive
The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have escaped.
Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.
Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental liver-transplant operation yesterday.
A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed successfully yesterday.
“Authorities make rules to be broken,” he said defiantly.
“Rules are made to be broken,” he said defiantly.
In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon.
Revising Your Paper:
(http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWrevisions.html)
Self-Revision by the Author
Revision of your writing is an on-going process from the time you begin until the final copy is submitted. A strategy that works for many people is to write out an initial draft in total without substantial revision and then let it sit for a day. Come back to it then and begin revising your paper working from a global perspective (overall organization) to paragraph content and organization and finally down to sentence level line editing.
Implicit in these instructions is the assumption that you are checking the content for scientific correctness and accuracy.
GLOBAL
check the sequence of ideas/background/content in each section for logical progression (your topic sentences should do this).
check for a strong relationship of ideas between the Introduction (what we knew before our study) and the Discussion (how our study changes or supports our previous understanding).
PARAGRAPH
check that each paragraph has a coherent topic sentence, most often as the lead sentence.
in each paragraph do the other sentences support the topic sentence?
check the transitions between paragraphs to ensure they are logical and smooth.
LINE EDITING
check for consistent and correct use of terminology.
can you change a passive verb construction to an active verb?
eliminate superfluous lead phrases (Once that was done, ..).
remove all colloquial language.
check for redundancy (i.e., places where you repeat what you have said elsewhere).
read each sentence closely for clarity and brevity. Can you say the same thing with fewer words?
READ THE PAPER ALOUD to find those quirky sentences that you wrote while still half asleep – if doesn’t sound correct when spoken aloud, it will read even more oddly.
MISCELLANEOUS
check that all of your sources are cited correctly in the text.
check the Literature Cited for completeness and correct format.
are the authors’ names spelled correctly?
run spell check on the document to find typographical errors and read carefully for spelling and grammatical errors.
Revision After Peer Critique
After reading carefully the comments and suggestions to improve your paper, discuss them with the reviewer (when possible) to get clarification or to argue your point, if you should disagree. In general, you will make the changes as suggested by the reviewer unless you have good, and justifiable, reasons not to.
Once you are clear on the changes to be made, approach the revision using the same global, paragraph, line editing strategy.
Make the global changes first and recheck the items listed previously.
Make the paragraph level changes and recheck list.
Make the line edit changes and recheck the list.
Recheck the miscellaneous items.
Final Revision
If possible, have your reviewer examine the paper again (cookies help!) one last time. If all the changes have been made to everyone’s satisfaction, make one last check of overall appearance of the document to catch recalcitrant page breaks, etc.
Grading of The Species paper:
The paper will be graded according to the following rubric:
Student Name: ______________________________________________________
CRITERIA
Exemplary
(9-10 pt)
Accomplished (6-8 pt)
Developing
(3-5 pt)
Beginning
(1-2 pt)
Style
Paper has a well-defined paragraph in the beginning for introduction, well-defined paragraphs for main body, and a well-defined final paragraph for conclusion
Paper has a defined paragraph in the beginning for introduction, defined paragraphs for main body, and a defined final paragraph for conclusion
Paper has an clear main body paragraphs but either the introduction or the conclusion paragraphs are not well-defined.
There is no distinction between introductory, main body, and conclusion paragraphs.
Organization
Information is very organized with well-constructed paragraphs and subheadings.
Information is organized with well-constructed paragraphs.
Information is organized, but paragraphs are not well-constructed.
The information appears to be disorganized.
Content
All topics are addressed and all questions answered with at least 2 sentences about each.
All topics are addressed and most questions answered with at least 2 sentences about each.
All topics are addressed, and most questions answered with 1 sentence about each.
One or more topics were not addressed.
Mechanics
No grammatical, spelling or punctuation errors.
Almost no grammatical, spelling or punctuation errors
A few grammatical spelling or punctuation errors.
Many grammatical, spelling, or punctuation errors.
Paragraph Construction
All paragraphs include introductory sentence, explanations or details, and concluding sentence.
Most paragraphs include introductory sentence, explanations or details, and concluding sentence.
Paragraphs included related information but were typically not constructed well.
Paragraphing structure was not clear and sentences were not typically related within the paragraphs.
Quality of Information
Information clearly relates to the main topic. It includes several supporting details and/or references.
Information clearly relates to the main topic. It provides 1-2 supporting details and/or references.
Information clearly relates to the main topic. No details and/or references are given.
Information has little or nothing to do with the main topic.
Sources
All sources (references) are accurately cited and documented in the desired format.
All sources (references) are accurately cited and documented, but a few are not in the desired format.
All sources (references) are cited and accurately documented, but many are not in the desired format.
Some sources are not cited and accurately documented.
TOTAL
70 (highest score)
7 (lowest score)
.
1