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Women’s Civil Rights Movement
Introduction
This research is centered on the women’s rights movements in African American societies, dated in the last decade of the civil rights movement and the decade succeeding it. By integrating segregation into legislation, African Americans were blatantly oppressed and denied basic human rights. This paper provides insight into some of the leaders who fought for equal rights, with their struggles stretching over decades. It will also explore the role that women played in the civil rights movement, as the amount of related literature and research is limited. They took on important responsibilities, with some of their influence and actions directly contributing to changes in legislation yet there is barely any documentation of these events. The main idea in this paper is to highlight various context and representation of the women’s and civil rights movements.
Annotated Bibliography
Bell, J. (2018). Lighting the fires of freedom. The New Press
Jane Bell explores the role that women took in the civil rights movement, centering her work on individuals that made significant contributions but failed to obtain recognition for their work. Set roughly five decades after the Civil Rights Act of 1968, the author presents an oral history that reflects on the impact that the movement’s female leaders had. Bell introduces nine women to the readers, providing information on their lives and accomplishments. The author uses interviews to delve into the related subjects, with the subjects often referring to each other in their separate accounts. This serves as an indication of how connected their work was, and their role in propelling the movement yet little to not account of them. Gay McDougall was one of the respondents, who acknowledges the challenges in the work, but their role in developing the required infrastructure. The author’s main idea is that women significantly contributed to the civil rights movement, yet they are not given credit or recognized. Her work aims to rectify this situation in some way, presenting detailed account of nine women and their work, which directly aligns with the objectives of this research. One of the main subjects is the poor effort historians put into documenting how women did a significant amount of the groundwork.
Letort, D. (2012). The Rosa Parks Story: The Making of a Civil Rights Icon. Indiana University Press, 3(2), 31-50. Retrieved 22 October 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.2979/blackcamera.3.2.31.pdf.
In this text, Delphine explores what it takes to construct the image of a civil rights icon, with Rosa Park’s story being the main point of reference. The construction of the civil rights movement memory and image was and remains a significant cultural focus in southern states over the last three decades. However, related activities fail to fully capture the complexities of the movement, excluding the participation of grassroots activists, instead using charismatic and marketable figures as its embodiment. The author centers their study on the role that art forms like films played in shaping public opinions of the movement and the damage done when such narratives center the bravery of white people for example. The author explores how Julie Dash restructured the narrative in The Rosa Parks story, stressing on her perspective rather than her husband’s. In telling the story, Dash highlights the concessions she had to make to fit the definition of a minority leader on television. The author centers her research on this film, using it to highlight how the media shapes women in the civil rights movement as palatable sidelining their achievements. It contributes to the research’s theoretical framework, as it provides detailed accounts of how little depth depictions of the civil rights movement provide.
Simien, E., & McGuire, D. (2014). A Tribute to the Women: Rewriting History, Retelling Herstory in Civil Rights. Politics & Gender, 10(03), 413-431. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1743923x14000245
Simien and McGuire focus on similar elements in their article, which focuses on rewriting the civil rights history to include the role that women played in its achievements. They paint a clear picture of imbalanced reporting or research on the civil rights movement, with the focus being extra-ordinary elite men. The effects of such presentation are detrimental, the authors suggest that rather than broaden understanding of different forms of resistance, it simplifies a nuanced and complicated version of the history. The authors aim to fix this by providing a more detailed account of the different power relations, as evidenced by lesser known but crucial members of the movement. They disengage from the first tier and notable female activists who often overshadowed the embedded daily struggles other women played. The study focuses on the multifaceted roles that women played in the movement, which were crucial in enabling smoot operation and continuity. The text is relevant to this study, as it acknowledges that women played crucial roles in the movement which were not properly addressed. It provides an expansion on the current body of work on related subjects, providing a more intersectional and inclusive understanding of the role of women in the struggle.
Salvatore, S., Garcia, M., Hornsby, A., Lawson, S., & Mah, T. (2009). CIVIL RIGHTS IN AMERICA: RACIAL DESEGREGATION OF PUBLIC ACCOMMODATIONS. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/subjects/tellingallamericansstories/upload/civilrights_desegpublicaccom.pdf
Through examining certain national historic landmarks, this text examines the intersection between civil rights in America and racial desegregation of public accommodations. The document provides historical context of segregation and desegregation of public services, with an extensive history dated from the colonial era and extending into the Jim Crow era. It also covers the age of Jim Crow to the second world war, connecting its effects on discrimination and exploring efforts to desegregate post war period up to the mid 1950s. The final section focuses on the modern civil rights movement which resulted in passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The authors in each section explore how race was an aggravating factor in oppressive and discriminative actions and policies. They also provide detailed accounts on how they fought back, and the challenges associated with these struggles. The information is foundational for the study’s ideology, which is a thematic study on historical context. It aimed at providing a chronological account the experience of colored people in America in gaining equal access to public accommodation. It is a relevant source of information for the study, as it provides detailed accounts of segregation and how it manifested, the fight to end it and whether success has been achieved.
Ramos, L. (2004). Dismantling Segregation Together: Interconnections between the Méndez v. Westminster (1946) andBrown v. Board of Education(1954) School Segregation Cases. Equity & Excellence in Education, 37(3), 247-254. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665680490491560
In deconstructing the dismantling of segregation in, Ramos centers her study on educational institutions, presenting interconnections between two relevant cases. The Mendez et al. vs Westminster School District case in 1946 is one of them, the author states it gained recognition in the 1990s after Gilbert Gonzales argues on its importance in influencing future cases on similar matters. The author also presents other scholarly arguments that attributed the shift in perspectives tied to segregation to the great depression and the second world war, from its benefits to the detrimental effects. The contributions of the Brown vs Board of education case in sparking desegregation efforts are also highlighted, with the author highlighting several scholars whose work provided further contexts and arguments. In doing so, she achieves the aim of the study, which is showing how these two landmark cases provided the legislative foundations for desegregation of educational institutions across the country. The article is relevant to this study, as it focuses on one of the primary symbols of the movement’s success, desegregating education. This research also uses various legislative changes related to education to highlight how the civil rights movement progressed.
Loveday, Veronica. “Feminism & the Women’s Rights Movement.” Feminism & the Women’s
Rights Movement, 8/1/2017, p. 1. EBSCOhost,
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=prh&AN=17989370&site=ehost-live.
In her report, Veronica Loveday writes about Women’s Rights Movement, during World War two, and many restrictions women faced. Women’s rights movement in the U.S. begun in the 1960s as a reaction to the decades of unfair social and civil inequities faced by women. Over the next thirty years, feminists campaigned for equality, such as equal pay, equal work, and abortion rights. Women finally gained the right to vote with the passage of the 19th amendment to the constitution in 1920. This victory was import but did not mark the end of the fight for women’s equality. During World War two, large numbers of women entered the American workforce for the first time. Because men were fighting in war, female workers were used to produce tanks, airplanes, ships, and other military equipment. The US government created advertising encouraging women to contribute to the war effort. The most famous poster depicting “Rosie the Riveter”, saying “We Can Do It!”. As the war progressed, working women proved that they were just as capable as the men they had replaced, once the war ended, most female workers were fired, and their jobs were given to returning service men. The few women who did remain in the workforce found that their opportunities were limited by their gender, and their pay was less than that offered to men working the same positions as them. This type of gender discrimination was so common that it became known as “the glass ceiling”. Female workers were also confronted with uninformed beliefs that women were less important than men, and women should find fulfillment in dedicating their lives to men. These setbacks may have discouraged many females, there was also many who took this weakness and used it as strength. Now many women in many nations have gained legal rights and fuller access to education and the professions, along with respect as being equal to men in dignity and importance.
Masters, Blythe. “Women’s Human Rights and Gender Equality.” Global Fund for Women’s, 2015, www.globalfundforwomen.org/womens-human-rights/.
In the article “Women’s Human Rights and Gender Equality’’ i read about how Women’s rights are the fundamental human rights that were enshrined by the United Nations for every human being on the planet nearly 70 years ago. These rights include to live free from violence, slavery, and discrimination; to be educated; to vote and to earn a fair and equal wage. A famous saying goes “Women’s rights are human rights” meaning, women all around the world are entitled to all these rights, but there are women and girls who are still denied these rights, often simply because of their gender. Winning these rights for women isn’t all, it’s also about changing how countries and communities works and their perspectives on gender equality. Global Fund for Women exists to support the tireless and courageous efforts of women’s groups who work every day to win rights for women and girls. These groups are working to ensure women can own property, vote, run for office, get paid fair wages, and live free from violence – including domestic violence, sexual assault. The Global Fund for Women also stand for other rights that are vital for women’s equality. They stand for a woman’s right to decide when she has children, and to have high-quality health care that means she won’t die in pregnancy or during childbirth. Although there are many associations and groups all around the world that work to achieve many of these goals, there are still many places whoa are i need for the same equality. This world will not have equality or peace until both genders are treated equally as human beings and not based on their gender.
“Women’s Rights.” Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2017, p. 1
EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx
direct=true&db=funk&AN=WO066900&site=ehost-live.
In the article Women’s rights, I read about the women’s rights movement and how much has been accomplished year after year. For many years society categorizes women’s abilities in a certain way, in this article it was described as “Traditional Status”, in early societies, women only bore and raised children, cared for their home, and helped maintain the family’s economic production. Male dominance was very common, the traditional belief was that women were naturally weaker than men, this stereotype was commonly reflected in men as religions developed; In the bible, God placed Eve under Adam’s authority, which urged Christian wives to be obedient to their husbands. Therefore, in most traditional societies and until recent times, women have generally been at a disadvantage. Their education was limited, they had no access to positions of power and marriage was almost a necessity. A women had no legal control over her person, her own land and money, or children. Some exceptions to women’s dependence on men did exist. In ancient Babylonia and Egypt women had property rights, and in Europe they were permitted to join craft guilds and some women had religious authority. During the French Revolution, women’s republican clubs in France pleaded that the goals of liberty, equality, and should apply to all, regardless of sex. Although these clubs in France didn’t accomplish anything, In England, Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), the first major modern feminist work. Its demands for equality and its revolutionary tone made it inappropriate at the time. The Industrial Revolution was a very significant for women. The transformation from handwork, which many women carried on at home without pay, to machine-powered mass production meant lower- class women could become wage earner in factories, this was the beginning of their independence. At the same time middle- and upper- class women were expected to stay home to raise children and tend the house, and if they did work their career options were limited, the main options were clerks, secretaries, and workers in stores, such conditions encouraged the feminist’s movement.
“Woman Suffrage.” Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2017, p. 1
EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=funk&AN=WO066200&site=ehost-live.
In the article “Woman Suffrage” it talks about the movement of many Woman Suffrage organizations in a variety of places. In the 18th and 19th centuries the right for a woman to share on equal terms with a man, political privileges and, more particularly, to vote in elections and to hold public office has always been ignored. Many groups in early 19th century America, such as the American Quakers, and numerous individuals, such as the American patriot Thomas Paine, consistently advocated for women to have the rights to vote. Nonetheless, in many other places in the world, women commonly were regarded as inferior beings. Their children, property, and earnings belonged by law to their husbands, and various legal and social barriers made divorce unthinkable. After the Civil War, on May 1869 two feminists leaders created the independent National Woman Suffrage Association, with the objective of gaining federal rights, another association led by Lucy Stone and Henry Ward Beecher, countered in November of the same year founding the American Woman Suffrage Association. The group worked for gradual adoption of woman suffrage on a state-by-state basis. The territory of Wyoming gave women the vote in 1868, giving a step forward and hope to many associations. The American suffragist movement scored its climactic victory in 1919 shortly after World War one. The congress approved the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which provided the “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex”. Most of the nations of the world have granted woman-suffrage legislation. among the first to do so before the mid-20th century was, Finland (1906); France (1944) and Japan (1946). By the late 1900’s, women had the vote in almost every country where man had it as well. In 2015, women in Saudi Arabia voted in and won elections for the first time.
Doetsch-Kidder, S. (2016). Social change and intersectional activism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Doetsch-Kidder’s (2016) monograph defines the important role of intersectionality as a defining sea-change in the way that women of color began to unify across racial and cultural barriers. Interviews with minority activists define the perception of the diversification of feminist ideology through the lens of intersectionality. One interview with an African-American activist named Donna illustrates the unity between women of color that evolved in the 1970s: “But overall, we are all fighting for civil rights, so there has to be some type of overlap with each one” (Doetsch-Kidder, 2016, p.103). This development defines the “overlapping’ ideology of different feminist groups, which soon began to devolve the racial and cultural barriers not only between women of color, but also with white feminist groups. In Doetsch-Kidder’s (2016) point of view, the civil rights movement laid the foundation for intersectional feminist principles to be practiced for women seeking greater representation in the workplace.
Hill Collins, P., & Bilge, S. (2016). Intersectionality. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hill-Collins and Bilge’s (2016) define the important historical role of the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, which gave African American women (and other minorities) a unique and original form of activism in the fight for equal rights in the workplace. During the 1960s, women of color were able to galvanize a unique style of union activism through support from Martin Luther King and other forms of non-violent protest as a form of intersectional feminist approach to labor organizing: “The intellectual production and activism of black women were not derivative of the so-called second-wave of white feminism but were original to their own ideas” (Hill-Collins & Bilge, 2016, p.67). This feminist development is an important part of Hill-Collins and Bilge’s (2016), since it defines the evolution of organizational infrastructures that defined the unique characteristics of African American feminism in the Civil Rights era. This is an important monograph that defines the effectiveness of minority activism in the workplace that was generated through the highly original methods of women’s protests during the 1950s and 1960s.
Grabham, E. (2009). Intersectionality and beyond. Abingdon, UK: Routledge-Cavendish.
Grabham’s (2009) monograph provides insight into the historical analysis of intersectionality in minority organizing, which was formed through the Civil Rights Movement. In this manner, the importance of Civil Rights activism (non-violent protest, sit-ins, etc.) became the de facto identifier for feminist theory in minority groups: “Indeed, intersectionality can be understood as the theoretical legacy of the civil rights movement (Grabham, 2009, p.130). Grabham (2009) provides legal and ethical examination of the influence of Civil Rights policies for feminist activism and organization, which made it possible to circumvent the alienating factors of a divided feminist culture. In fact, the divide between white feminist groups and black feminist groups is historically defined by the necessity of a unique focus on the issue of race in the 1950s and 1960s. Therefore, the growth of African American women’s unions had to adopt their own specialized strategies to organizing through the context of racial inequality.
Moore, L. S. (2013). Women and the Emergence of the NAACP. Journal Of Social Work Education, 49(3), 476-489.
Moore’s (2013) article defines the important intersectionality of women’s rights and the formation of unions as a historical in the development of the NAACP. This organization was pivotal in promoting equal rights in the workplace, which was founded on the increasing participation of women in labor organizations. Moore’s (20130 article focuses on the women that were involved “The Call” that laid the foundation for the NAACP and the Civil Rights Movement in the context of women’s solidarity: “Eight of the women signers were actively involved in the civil rights movement that emphasized voting rights, equality, and support for African Americans” (Moore, 2013, p.482). In this context, the important role of intersectionality was defined in this type of organizational style, which expanded the identity of women to include all forms of minority women. In Moore’s (2013) article, many black activists in labor unions cooperated with other women’s groups, such as Chinese American groups, to build larger unions.
Nadasen, P. (2015). Domestic Workers’ Rights, the Politics of Social Reproduction, and New Models of Labor Organizing. Viewpoint Magazine. Retrieved 2 January 2018, from http://www.viewpointmag.com/2015/10/31/domestic-workers-rights-the-politics-of-social-reproduction-and-new-models-of-labor-organizing/.
Nadasen’s (2015) article defines the important role of African American women’s labor organizations that had developed throughout the 1940s to the 1960s due to the influence of the Civil Rights Movement. This historical pattern reveals the increasing importance of intersectional feminist theory due to the increasing exposure of racism and women’s rights in American labor. This article is an important source for understanding how women of color began organizing worker’s unions to oppose racism in the context of domestic work in the mid-20th century. The role of Dorothy Bolden in the 1960s defines an important change from the in\visible role of African American women in the fight for equal rights, which was often ignored in white feminist movements. Nadasen (2015) provides an important historical evaluation of the development of race and women’s rights through the development of Civil Rights Movement in the formation of the National Domestic Workers Union of America (NDWUA) and the Household Technicians of America (HTA).
Theoharis, Keanne. The rebellious life of Mrs. Rosa Parks. Massachusetts: Beacon Press Books, 2013.
In “The rebellious life of Mrs. Rosa Parks”, Theoharis argues that “The standard portrayal of Rosa Parks as a quiet and demure accidental actor is far from true”. Parks was committed to disintegrating racial inequality in everyday situations, for example Jobs, Schools, Public services, The criminal justice system, etc. Park’s contributions to the Civil Rights movement have lasted a lifetime. The work put in, by Parks to the civil rights movements is more than the effort of a single day. Parks was also known as “The mother of the civil rights movement” Parks is an inspiring radical woman who has been hidden in front of our own two eyes for way too long. She was and always will be a national heroine who dedicated her life to fighting for American inequality.
Parks, Virginia. “Rosa Parks Redux: Racial Mobility Projects on the Journey to Work.” Annals of the American Association of Geographers 2016, Vol. 106, 2 (2016): p292-299. 8p. 10/11/17.http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.cabrini.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=9&sid=5cd73bce-9579-486c-8a77-0659ca74028bsessionmgr4007
Virginia Park argues that the image of Rosa Parks and the Bus is very iconic in the Civil Rights movement. Rosa Parks was travelling home from work on December 1st, 1955, when she refused to give her seat to a white passenger. “An act of Civil disobedience that set the Montgomery bus boycott in motion and propelled civil rights onto the national stage Her refusal crystallized the insidious nature of segregation in the south and laid bare its brutal banality” Park’s resistance reveals the possibility of a chance at freedom in using transportation in the United States. Racism from place to place is not a simple technical problem to be fixed but a project that everyone needs to be committed to that tackles larger more important questions about justice and the right way of living.
Thorsby, Jacqueline. “Critical companion to Maya Angelou.” A Literary Reference to Her Life and Work. New York: Random House, Inc., 1996. 240 Print.
Critical companion to Maya Angelou is a collection of poems, short stories, and ideas of Maya Angelou, written by Jacqueline S. Thursby. Thursby simply does a critical commentary ofAngelou’s powerful and most famous work. Thursby comments on Angelou’s eloquence on “The ‘I’ of black poetry is not a singular or individualistic referent but a symbol for the idea of the black collective.” (Thursby 240) She also states that, Angelou’s word choice allows her to be able to touch her audience and improve their moral status even in a time “when the ordeal of verbal and physical abuse continues, and equal rights seem far away and almost hopeless.” I will use this critical commentary to further show that Angelou’s diction and style of writing is strong and effective to the reader.
Neubauer, Carol E. “Maya Angelou: Self and a Song of Freedom in the Southern Tradition.” Southern Women Writers: The New Generation. Ed. Tonette Bond Inge. The University of Alabama Press, 1990. 114-142. Rpt. in Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. James P. Draper and Jennifer Allison Brostrom. Vol. 77. Detroit: Gale, 1993. Literature Resource Center. 01 Apr. 2016.
In this article, Carol E. Neubauer discusses the importance of repetition in “Still I rise” and the speaker’s internal conflict. Neubauer states Angelou message was “a hopeful determination to rise above discouraging defeat.” (Neubauer 137) These poems are inspired and spoken by “a confident voice of strength that recognizes its own power and will no longer be pushed into passivity.” (Neubauer 137) Neubauer discusses the impact Angelou’s “Angelou reaches out to touch the lives of others and to offer them hope and confidence in place of humiliation and despair.” (Neubauer 140) I will use this essay in my final paper to analyze and determine the repetition in this poem and how it deeply affects the way in which the poem is meant to be understood.
“Still I Rise.” Poetry for Students. Ed. Sara Constantakis. Vol. 38. Detroit: Gale, 2011. 218-236. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Apr. 2016.
In this article, Sara Constantakis analyzes the significance of the repetition in the final lines of “Still I Rise” and compares this poem with another poem written by Angelou titled “Ain’t that Bad?” Constantakis states Angelou uses every opportunity to build African American pride as she also does in “Ain’t That Bad?” Angelou wants African Americans to understand that in a time of hardship and despair, one shall overcome and prevail. Its short lines, its repetition of imperatives, and “its repetition of the title help constitute a chant, which categorizes it as a shouting poem.” (Constantakis 220) I will use this essay in my final paper to analyze and determine the repetition in this poem and how it deeply affects the way in which the poem is meant to be understood.
Stepto, Robert B. “The Phenomenal Woman and the Severed Daughter (Maya Angelou, Audre Lorde),” Parnassus: Poetry in Review 8, no. 1 (Fall-Winter 1979): pp. 313–15. Quoted as “‘Still I Rise’ and Brown’s ‘Strong Men'” in Harold Bloom, ed. Maya Angelou, Bloom’s Major Poets. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishing, 2001. Bloom’s Literature. Facts On File, Inc. Web. 01 Apr. 2016
In this article, Robert B. Stepto analyzes the significance of the word choice and diction in Maya Angelou’s poem “Still I Rise” and how Angelou’s title poem, reminds us of Brown’s famous “Strong Men,” that it is the discovery of that point which helps us define Angelou’s particular presence and success. The poetic and visual rhythms created by the repetition of “Still I Rise” and its variants clearly revoice that of Brown’s “strong men . . . strong men gittin’ stronger.” (Stepto 313) Stepto later suggests Angelou’s word play and draws the reader’s attention to Angelou’s usage of the word ‘I’ “But the “I” of Angelou’s refrain is obviously female and, in this instance, a woman forthright about the sexual nuances of personal and social struggle.” (Stepto 314) I plan on using this essay to further examine diction and its importance in this poem.
Projected Outline
The format of a paper is essentially to how the reader interprets it, as it can either enhance or hinder clarity. The proposed outlie of the paper is:
Introduction: Background, thesis statement and research objectives. Brief overview of the contents of the research.
Body: Theoretical framework, article analysis and findings.
Conclusion: Summary of the main ideas presented and author’s perspective of the matter.
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References
Bell, J. (2018). Lighting the fires of freedom. The New Press.
Letort, D. (2012). The Rosa Parks Story: The Making of a Civil Rights Icon. Indiana University Press, 3(2), 31-50. Retrieved 22 October 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.2979/blackcamera.3.2.31.pdf.
Ramos, L. (2004). Dismantling Segregation Together: Interconnections between the Méndez v. Westminster(1946) andBrown v. Board of Education(1954) School Segregation Cases. Equity & Excellence In Education, 37(3), 247-254. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665680490491560
Salvatore, S., Garcia, M., Hornsby, A., Lawson, S., & Mah, T. (2009). CIVIL RIGHTS IN AMERICA: RACIAL DESEGREGATION OF PUBLIC ACCOMMODATIONS. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/subjects/tellingallamericansstories/upload/civilrights_desegpublicaccom.pdf
Simien, E., & McGuire, D. (2014). A Tribute to the Women: Rewriting History, Retelling Herstory in Civil Rights. Politics & Gender, 10(03), 413-431. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1743923x14000245
Continued…